![]() These events include host invasion and tissue migration, parasite nourishment and reproduction, and immune modulation. Hookworm ES products, with distinct structures and functions, have been linked to many essential events in the disease pathogenesis. Although the molecular cloning and characterization of hookworm ES products began 25 years ago, the biological role and molecular nature of many of them are still unclear. Numerous molecules, named excretory/secretory (ES) products, are secreted by hookworm adults and/or larvae to aid in parasite survival and pathobiology. Adult hookworms survive for many years in the host intestine, where they suck blood, causing iron deficiency anemia and malnutrition. Hookworm infection is a major public health problem that threatens about 500 million people throughout tropical areas of the world.
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